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GPX4 knockdown keratinocytes appeared to have a decreased capacity for cell adhesion, along with accumulating lipid peroxides and enhanced levels of various pro-inflammatory elements, including COX-2, 4-HNE, and prostaglandins (Sengupta et al., 2013)

Patients who stick with these often see more steady progress

However, a significant limitation across many studies is the reliance on in vivo phenotypic readouts without robust in vitro mechanistic validation, making it difficult to distinguish direct immunomodulatory effects from secondary consequences

In high-glucosechallenged retinal pigment epithelial cells, PCs activate the p53/mTOR autophagy pathway, lowering apoptosis-related factors (e.g., Bax, Caspase-3, LC3-II/LC3-I, and phosphorylated p53) and elevating the levels of survival proteins (Bcl-2, p62, and phosphorylated mTOR) (Li et al., 2022)