Under physiological conditions, their generation is controlled by the antioxidant system, which consists of enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidases (GPXs) and their antioxidant substrates (such as glutathione and -tocopherol).[] Generated in abnormally high levels, ROS have destructive effects which can affect lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids by causing fragmentation products and cross-linked metabolism products[] that can lead to lipid peroxides formation, enzymatic dysfunction, and DNA strand break products.[] These destructive effects can be removed by antioxidant balance, which acts like free radical scavengers or cellular oxidation inhibitors,[] which can be categorized in plasma and intracellular antioxidant mechanisms.[] It has also been shown that oxidative stress plays an important role in gastrointestinal diseases
GHK-Cu treatment shows altered methylation at specific gene loci potentially explaining sustained effects beyond immediate peptide presence
Still, some protocols include breaks every 1216 weeks to prevent plateauing and maintain long-term responsiveness
Mussin, J., & Giusiano, G
