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cremoris and was not related to the intracellular GSH content [20]

Although glutamine is required as an alternative fuel for the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) to produce ATP, it also contributes to a wide range of pathways in cells, producing amino acids, nucleotides and fatty acids as well as playing an important role in reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis, mTOR activation and the hexosamine biosynthesis pathway (Figure 1)

In a recent study, administration of exendin-4, a long-acting GLP-1RA, stimulated -cell proliferation in juvenile human islets by inducing gene expressions of calcineurin/nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) signaling, a proliferating factor such as NFATC1, and a cell cycle regulator such as cyclin A1 [57]

Our work provides first indications to the timeline of increasing apoplastic H 2 O 2 levels in consequence to activating an immune response, as directly measured with a protein-based redox sensor